Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Legume Systems Research

Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Legume Systems Research

Final Report

Project Title: Quantifying the Scope and Scale of Nutritious Cowpea Products in Local Markets of West Africa

Executive Summary

West Africa is the global locus of cowpea production. Across the region, cowpea products provide critical nutrients and cash income to smallholder farmers. Yet, little is known in quantitative terms about the scale and scope of cowpea products supplied in local markets and demanded by households. Apart from information on production and area by region, little information exists on cowpea in Mali and Senegal.

Our research in Mali and Senegal closes the information gap by building a quantitative inventory of cowpea products supplied and demanded in local markets. The inventory recorded characteristics of products, vendors, and markets. In Mali, about 400 vendors were interviewed across 26 markets in the five southern regions. In Senegal, about 1,000 vendors were interviewed across 100 markets in all 14 regions. The inventory was conducted in collaboration with the national market information systems in both countries. Findings indicate that grain vendors, especially in the wholesale segments of the value chains, are predominantly men, whereas cowpeas are processed mainly by women. A wider range of processed cowpea products are available in Malian markets than in Senegalese ones. In Mali, five processed cowpea products are commonly sold in markets: Sho-froufrou (doughnuts), accra (doughnuts), fari (pancake), cooked cowpea grains, and cowpea balls, whereas, in Senegal, ndambe (stew prepared with cowpea and eaten with bread) and akara (fritter) are the two main cowpea-based products sold in markets. We make several suggestions for further engaging diverse private and public sector actors, including women-led small-scale enterprises, in cowpea-related business opportunities.

Findings from the cowpea market assessment informed the household food consumption survey design, which was implemented by the USSGB in Mali and ISRA/BAME in Senegal. About 540 and 650 urban and rural households were interviewed about food consumption in three southern regions of Mali and all 14 regions of Senegal. Findings indicate that grains remain the most common form of cowpea products purchased by households for home consumption. Cowpea consumption also contributes positively to the diet diversity of households. A significantly greater share of households consumed cowpea in the last seven days compared to the previous 24 hours. Although it is less likely to be consumed daily, cowpea remains an important food staple
in the Malian and Senegalese diets. We identify incentives for inclusive market systems to deliver nutritious products to urban and rural households across seasons.

Several capacity-building approaches were used. Through continuous mentoring and active participation in the project activities alongside co-PIs and market technicians, students in Mali and Senegal gained their first field experience. Researchers from local institutions refined their research skills by learning about and implementing new methods and participating in intensive short training. In addition to a series of informal meetings throughout the project, the final workshops allowed local partners to showcase their results and engage in policy dialogue with private and public stakeholders, leading to key recommendations to develop further the cowpea value chains, notably through a better integration of cowpea-based products into the menu of school canteens in Senegal.

The team contributed to generating and disseminating new knowledge by producing several outputs, including four unique datasets, two peer-reviewed journal articles, eight research papers, 19 presentations, 7 Master theses, and over a dozen reports.

Project Partners

USA | Michigan State University

Dr. Veronique Theriault

Associate Professor, Agricultural, Food, and Resource
Economics. Lead PI

Dr. Melinda Smale

Professor, Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics. Co-lead PI

Hanna Carlson

Graduate Student, Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics

Mali | Université des Sciences Sociales et de Gestion de Bamako

Dr. Mamadou Sissoko

Assistant Professor, Business Administration. Co-lead PI.

Abdoul K. Traore

Graduate Student, Geomatics, Management and Land Development

Demba Diallo

Graduate Student, Applied Development Economics

Aminata Diallo

Graduate Student, Geography

Amadou Dembele

Graduate Student, Decentralization and Local Development

Mali | Observatoire du marché agricole

Pierre Traore

Director, and several market agents

Mali | Institut d’Économie Rurale

Dr. Bourema Kone

Director

Mali | Consultants

Amidou Assima

Statistician

Naman Keita

Survey Expert

Senegal | Université de Gaston Berger

Dr. Aliou Diagne

Affiliated Professor, Economics and Management. Co-lead PI

Senegal | Université Iba Der Thiam de Thiès

Dr. Idrissa Wade

Senior Lecturer, Economic and Rural Sociology

Anna Fatoumata

Graduate Student, Agricultural Engineering

Djibril Diallo

Graduate Student, Environmental Economics/ Sustainable Development

Senegal | ISRA Bureau d'Analyses Macro-Économiques

Dr. Fatou Faye Mane

Economist

Dr. Sadibou Fall

Economist

Moustapha Kasse
Statistician, and several BAME enumerators

Senegal | Université Assane Seck de Ziguinchor

Saboury Ndiaye

Senior Lecturer, Sciences and Technology

Mika Ndiaye

Graduate Student, Economics and Management

Senegal | Système d’Information des Marchés du Commissariat à la Sécurité Alimentaire

Mouhamadou Ndiaye

Director, and several market agents

Project Goals and Objectives

The project's goal was to promote a diversified cowpea sector that offers increased employment, income, and consumption opportunities while creating an enabling environment for a diversity of cowpea actors, including small-scale enterprises led by women, in Senegal and Mali.

Until now, little was known in quantitative terms about the scale and scope of cowpea products in local markets. Market-based incentives for products other than grain, including leaves, processed and nutritious products, received little attention. We contributed to closing the information gap by providing new information on current market parameters in order to better integrate cowpea and cowpea products into local and regional market channels in West Africa.

Our first objective was to characterize the scale (quantities and geographical extent) and scope (product differentiation) of cowpea traded in local open-air markets in Mali and Senegal. Second, we sought to gain insights regarding changing consumer preferences and current consumption of a broader range of cowpea products supplied to these markets. We were interested not only in cowpea grain but also leaves and cowpea-processed products, especially the nutritious ones. Third, we aimed to identify opportunities to expand consumer demand for value-added cowpea products, focusing on nutritious products. Objective four was to derive implications for the potential of private and public sector engagement in producing and marketing value-added, cowpea-based products at various nodes in the value chain. Key actors in private sector engagement included women who processed and sold value-added products, some of which are oriented toward the nutritional needs of vulnerable groups. The public sector was also engaged, notably through the supply of nutritious products in school canteens. Our fifth objective was to strengthen the capacity of local partners to conduct market analyses, assess consumer demand, and implement policy research.

With additional funding from the “Cross-Cutting Theme Award”, a sixth objective was added. It consisted of identifying key factors that could motivate the design and implementation of a policy to better integrate cowpea-based products into the menu of school canteens in Senegal.

Overview of Activities

Several activities were undertaken to meet the project's goal and objectives. The first activity consisted of conducting a series of meetings to present the project's goal and objectives to private and public stakeholders involved in the cowpea value chains of Mali and Senegal to engage their interest and participation.   

Following these consultations, we reviewed existing value chain analyses and updated the Malian value chain map. We compiled and analyzed several secondary datasets to tease out information on cowpeas. As expected, there was little information on cowpeas beyond production across regions. 

For the market assessment, we first developed a research survey protocol to assess the scale and scope of cowpea grains and products traded in open-air markets in both countries. The markets were selected based on existing secondary data on cowpea production regions and in collaboration with the market information systems, which provided information on market location and day, cowpea availability, and security in both countries. We designed, pre-tested, and implemented survey questionnaires in each selected market in Mali and Senegal. Note that the sampling frames and questionnaire surveys were personalized for each country. Yet, both survey questionnaires encompassed a market, trader, and product modules in order to collect information on the different types of cowpea products (i.e., bulk grain, leaves, packaged grain, processed food, prepared foods) offered by different trader categories in markets with different infrastructural characteristics (Objective 1). In Mali, about 500 processed cowpea product traders in 26 markets across the four Southern regions of the country were interviewed in January and February 2021. In Senegal, approximately 1000 traders of grain and processed products were interviewed from April to June 2021. The data collected has allowed us to assess the scale and scope of cowpea grain and cowpea-based products available to consumers. Findings from the market assessment have enabled us to describe all of the ways cowpea is purchased in each study country, as well as the market structure by trader type and infrastructural features, and quantities. A series of publications were produced, including peer-reviewed journal articles (See the accomplishment section). 

The information from the market assessment was then used to design a survey to examine consumer preferences, current purchases, and constraints to the consumption of cowpea grain and processed cowpea products (Objectives 2 and 3). The consumer survey was implemented in January and May of 2023 in Mali to capture seasonality and in May 2023 in Senegal. The households were selected by stratified random sample across the southern regions in Mali and all regions in Senegal ( similar to the market assessment sampling frames). A total of 540 and 650 households were interviewed in Mali and Senegal, respectively. The design and implementation of the consumer surveys were done in collaboration with the Université des Sciences Sociales et de Gestion de Bamako in Mali and ISRA/Bureau d'Analyses Macro Economiques in Senegal.  

To address the fourth objective, we organized in each country a dissemination workshop to discuss findings with key stakeholders, including women cowpea processors, national food technology laboratories, and representatives from the national cowpea program, and explore avenues for expanding private sector engagement in the cowpea value chain. Two reports

To address the fourth objective, we organized in each country a dissemination workshop to discuss findings with key stakeholders, including women cowpea processors, national food technology laboratories, and representatives from the national cowpea program, and explore avenues for expanding private sector engagement in the cowpea value chain. Two reports summarize the recommendations made by the key stakeholders on how to develop further and support the cowpea value chains. It is worth noting that several informal meetings with key stakeholders took place in both countries throughout the years of the project.

To meet the fifth objective of this study, MSU worked in close collaboration with faculty and students from several local universities (Université de Gaston Berger, Université Assane Seck de Ziguinchor, and Université Iba Der Thiam de Thiès in Senegal and Université des Sciences Sociales et de Gestion de Bamako in Mali). A total of 4 Malian and 3 Senegalese students were selected through a competitive and transparent process to actively participate in the research activities as part of their master’s theses. Students received continuous mentoring from one of the Co-PIs based in-country and one MSU faculty member throughout the writing of their theses during the project lifetime. One MSU graduate student had the opportunity to strengthen her research skills while improving her professional networks by collaborating on the survey design, data cleaning, data analysis, and dissemination of findings. This project created strong connections between team members, including students.

A series of training was provided to our partners: Research ethics and human research plan for a safe return (amidst the pandemic); Value chain analysis; Use of the Kaleidoscope policy model to understand policies affecting the cowpea value chains; Use of agronomic data to formulate policy recommendations. The number of participants adds up to over 100. One junior faculty from each country attended the ÊSTIMATE (Early Summer Tutorial in Modern Applied Tools of Econometrics) program at Michigan State University in order to broaden and improve their practice of econometric methods through empirical research and data analysis. Through these capacity-building activities, in-country partners are in a better position to incorporate innovative field research methods and econometric tools into their coursework and research. Both co-PIs and the MSU graduate student had the opportunity to participate in the FtF Legume Systems Research global convening, which gave them the opportunity to learn about the most recent advances in the field, shared key research findings with a large and diverse group of stakeholders, and built their professional network. In addition, all Malian and Senegalese students had their first hands-on experience collecting data and presenting their research in front of a diverse audience during the dissemination workshops.

To meet the sixth objective, a series of meetings were organized with several institutional partners involved in the school feeding program, including World Food Program and Counterpart International, as well as with local agri-food processors in the regions of Kolda, Kaolack, and Thiès. During those meetings, key recommendations were made on how to better integrate cowpea into school menus. A graduate student has examined the competitiveness of cowpea to imported ingredients into school menus.

Accomplishments

As of July 2023, the team contributed to several outputs, including two peer-reviewed journal articles, eight research papers, 19 presentations, and seven master’s theses. Most of the research papers are currently (or soon) to be under review for publication in peer-reviewed journals. These figures do not include other non-technical documents, such as field reports and newsletters. In collaboration with local partners, the team conducted several field surveys to collect the necessary data to quantify the scope and scale of cowpea-based products in the local markets of Mali and Senegal. Over 1100 households and 1400 traders were interviewed to rigorously analyze cowpea-based products available in open-air markets of Mali and Senegal, as well as rural and urban households’ cowpea consumption habits. 

Several communication channels were used to engage with key stakeholders along the cowpea value chains, including meetings, workshops, and newsletters. One dissemination workshop was organized in each country, with 35 and 14 stakeholders participating in Mali and Senegal, respectively. These figures do not include any of the informal meetings that often took place.  

In terms of capacity building, we organized short-term training sessions, which were targeted at junior researchers and graduate students. For example, we organized training on research ethics and human research plan for a safe return (amidst the pandemic) with survey enumerators and agents from OMA and CSA/SIM. We also provided training on value chain analysis, the use of the Kaleidoscope model to analyze policies, and the use of agronomic data to make recommendations. Three researchers had the opportunity to participate in an econometric training offered by the Economic Department at Michigan State University.   

Long-term capacity building was a key component of our project. A total of seven students from local universities participated in the project activities under the supervision of the co-PIS. Through their participation in the project, they gained their first data collection experience, sharpened their skills, and completed (or will complete soon) their master’s theses. Please see the links below to learn more about the student experience. 

Demba Diallo: The Benefits of My Cowpea Project Internship

Abdoul Kader Traoré: The Benefits of my Internship in the Cowpea Project

Below is a list of our key accomplishments

5.1 Peer-reviewed Journal Articles

Mali

Sissoko, M., Theriault, V., and Smale, M. 2022. Beyond grain: The potential of cowpea in local markets of Mali. Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies,  https://doi.org/10.1108/JADEE-02-2022-0035

We assess the development potential of cowpea beyond grain in local markets in Mali by: (1) identifying trader types and types of cowpea products sold; (2) examining trader roles; (3) estimating gross margins and their determinants; and (4) discussing policy opportunities to further develop the value chain. We analyze data collected through observation and semi-structured questionnaires from 487 sellers in 26 markets, including market, seller, and product characteristics. We calculate gross margins and conduct a regression analysis to identify influential factors. We identify several types of cowpea sellers in local markets, including processor-retailers, retailers of fresh leaves and fodder, and grain retailers, collectors, and wholesalers. Women dominate the marketing of processed products and fresh leaves. The marketing of boiled cowpeas offers retailers higher margin rates compared to fritters and pancakes. Grain sellers, who are mostly men, have lower margins but sell larger quantities. Processor-retailers bring more value to the cowpea value chain. Specialization of the seller in cowpea, regional location of the market and day of the market fair all influence gross margins. Future work should explore consumer preferences for different types of cowpea products. We recommend that policy makers include cowpea in their program to support agricultural diversification and undertake actions to support women’s engagement in small-scale cowpea enterprises. Our study of the cowpea value chain in Mali has revealed the multidimensional character of the cowpea plant, which goes far beyond its grain and highlight the important roles played by women.

Smale, M., Theriault, V.,  Allen, A., and Sissoko, M. 2022. Is cowpea a ‘women’s crop’ in Mali? Implications for value chain development, African Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 17 (2):157–170

Cowpea, which is produced primarily in West Africa, is valued locally for its agronomic benefits in dryland farming, nutritional content, and contribution to the livelihoods of farming families. Many feel that more investment in cowpea research and development is needed for the crop to achieve its economic potential. Cowpea has long been labelled a ‘women’s crop’. We tested whether this is the case in Mali by exploring five indicators with a combination of primary and secondary databases, and interpreting our results in the context of the regional literature. We conclude that, in Mali, cowpea is better characterized as a ‘women’s enterprise’. Men are more likely than women to plant cowpea as either a primary or secondary crop and tend to plant larger areas, with cowpea intercropped. In drier agro-ecologies, women are more likely to grow cowpea than other crops. Although subsample sizes are very small, women cowpea growers appear to earn more on average from selling the harvest from their individual plots than do men. Women represent 99% of traders of processed cowpea products in the open-air markets we surveyed. In the production segment of the value chain, investments to facilitate women’s access to improved cowpea seed and local markets would support their commercial orientation. Investments in women’s trade in processed cowpea products, including the provision of credit, storage, and training in organizational capacity, would enhance their incomes and their livelihoods.

5.2 Research Papers

Mali 

Theriault, V., Assima, A., Sissoko, M., and Smale, M. 2023. The Importance of Cowpeas in Mali’s Household Dietary Habits. Research Paper

Cowpea, which is a nutritious and climate-friendly crop, has untapped potential that could increase the income and nutritional status of Malians if unlocked. Yet, cowpea-disaggregated data remains scarce, making it challenging to empirically discern the importance of the crop on dietary habits. Utilizing a unique food consumption survey dataset that was collected from 540 households located in urban and rural areas across the four southern regions of Mali in January 2023 and May 2023, we compute and compare cowpea consumption, household dietary diversity, and food consumption scores across urban and rural households and seasons. We employ statistical regressions to examine the determinants of household diet quality and cowpea consumption.  Our findings indicate that significantly more urban and rural households consumed cowpeas in the previous seven days compared to the last 24 hours during both seasons. Regardless of the season and period of recall, rural households consumed more cowpeas than urban households. The share of cowpea in the total food budget ranges between 3 and 4 for rural and urban households across seasons. Similar factors explain the dietary habits of urban and rural households in Mali, with cowpea consumption significantly affecting household diet diversity scores. After controlling for a set of covariates, household diet diversity scores are lower in rural than urban areas. We recommend that food consumption surveys refrain from lumping cowpea into the legume food group to avoid losing key information that, in turn, could lead to missed opportunities to address food and nutrition insecurity through investments along the cowpea value chain.

Sissoko, M., and Theriault. Analysis of the Structure, Conduct, and Performance of the Cowpea Market in Mali. Research Paper (in French). 

Cowpea production has experienced remarkable growth in the last decade in Mali. It increased from about 120,000 tons in 2008 to almost 260,000 tons in 2018. However, there are still challenges facing the development of the cowpea value chain, including the lack of coordination among stakeholders and considerable variability in prices and volumes across markets. In this study, we examine the structure, conduct, and performance of the cowpea market in Mali. We use a cross-sectional dataset of almost 500 cowpea sellers across 26 open-air markets in four regions of the country. Descriptive statistics and the Gini coefficient are employed to determine the structure and conduct of the cowpea market. The gross margin is used to measure the market performance along with the estimation of price variations through multiple linear regression analysis. A Gini coefficient of  0.77 for cowpea grain sales and 0.61 for processed cowpea product sales are computed, indicating a highly concentrated market. The analysis of the sellers’ behaviors (conduct) provides insightful information on their buying, selling, and price fixation strategies. The gross margin calculations suggest that selling cowpea can be profitable for both sellers of processed cowpea products and grains. Results from the regression indicate that market infrastructures, location, and seller characteristics significantly influence price variability. Policy recommendations on how to better support the development of the cowpea value chain in Mali, especially the marketing segment of cowpea-based products, are made.

Carlson, H. 2022. A Seasonal Analysis of Food Demand for Rural and Urban Malians: Is Dietary Transformation Underway? Research Paper. 

In Mali, food insecurity has been a longstanding issue exacerbated by climate change and political instability. To create policies that may improve not only the food security but the dietary quality of Malians, it is crucial to understand how food consumption changes with both income and price changes. Utilizing two World Bank datasets, the 2014 Living Standards Measurement Study with an Integrated Survey on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA) and the 2018 Harmonized Survey on Households Living Standards, this paper examines and compares food demand for rural and urban Malians during both the lean and harvest seasons. We look at demand based on food groups and the extent of processing to provide insight into where Mali is within the dietary transformation process. Results from our two-stage Working-Leser and Quadratic Almost Ideal Demand System (QUAIDS) estimations indicate that rural and urban Malians are highly dependent on staple crops, which comprise most of their diets in all seasons. Even in urban areas, there is little consumption of moderately or highly processed foods, indicating that Mali is still very early in the dietary transformation process. Policies that increase household expenditure, such as resource transfer programs, could lead to increased food security despite significant barriers to implementation.

Senegal 

Smale, M. Assima, A., and Theriault. 2023. Cowpea grain sales by women and men traders in local markets of Senegal. Research Paper. 

To orient the commercial development of cowpeas, we identify the determinants of the value of cowpea grain sold by traders in Senegal’s local markets. We test whether the determinants differ by the trader’s gender and explore seasonal patterns.  We employ ordinary least squares and seemingly unrelated regression using a nationally representative dataset of 955 sellers in 100 urban and rural markets across 14 regions.  The value of cowpea grain sold by traders is influenced by vendor and market characteristics but not by cowpea type. Women and men vendors appear to belong to distinct populations. The sales value was eight times higher during the survey season among men. Most women grain sellers are retailers.  The picture that emerges is that men traders are able to respond more to economic signals, such as purchase cost, credit, and labor payments, perhaps because they operate on a larger scale. Seasonal sales were significantly correlated. To support cowpea commercialization, researchers should explore characteristics of enterprises led by women and men traders in greater depth. Sampling grain sold in markets to test genetic relationships with improved varieties would enable researchers to link market-based incentives directly to cowpea breeding. We recommend that policymakers consider different intervention designs to enhance commercialization opportunities for women and men traders. Previous economics research about cowpea grain markets emphasized the hedonic analysis of grain characteristics to guide crop improvement. This study reveals differentiation among traders by gender and the importance of vendor and market characteristics in sales value.

Carlson, H. 2023. Determinants of Food and Cowpea Processing Among Senegalese Traders: A Triple-Hurdle Analysis. Research Paper. 

This paper examines the factors behind the decision to sell processed food products, with an emphasis on processed cowpea in Senegal. With nearly half of the country facing moderate to severe food insecurity and a third living below the poverty line, Senegal could benefit from continued growth of the processed food industry to improve food affordability and accessibility. To our knowledge, this is the first study to look at the determinants of processed food vending. This knowledge gap is crucial to fill. What factors contribute to one’s decision to become a processed food trader? Are there additional factors affecting the decision to sell processed cowpea? We model a three-stage choice: (1) the choice to become a processed food trader, (2) the choice to process cowpea conditional on being a processed food trader, and (3) how much cowpea to process each day. We estimate this model using the triple-hurdle method, which is a recent expansion on the classic double-hurdle model frequently employed to analyze market participation. We find that women dominate the cowpea processing industry in Senegal. We also find that traders with children who help in their businesses are more likely to be processors, and women processors with children who help in their businesses are more likely to process cowpea. Additionally, traders with access to storage are less likely to be processors, and married traders are also less likely to be processors. These findings combined to support the idea that food processing is a safety net for women who must find a low barrier-to-entry trade to support their families.

Diagne, A. and Theriault, V. 2023. Estimation of potential population cowpea market sizes when sellers are unconstrained by product variety information, availability, storability, and consumer demand: The case of Senegal. Research Paper

In this paper, we use the Local Average Treatment Effect (LATE) framework and data from a nationwide survey of 900 traders in 100 urban and rural markets in Senegal to provide estimates of the potential sellers’ population sizes of the markets for cowpeas as measured by the incidence of the causal effects of alleviating the product variety information, availability, storability, and consumer demand constraints facing traders selling cowpeas in markets across Senegal, respectively. We also provide an estimate of the behavioral gap associated with each constraint (difference between actual and potential relative population sizes), a measure of the unmet demands for constraint alleviation by traders who are not presently selling some of the cowpea varieties but would have sold them had they not faced the respective constraint. The results of our analysis show that, across cowpea varieties, lack of variety information, as measured by unawareness of the existence of a variety, is by far the constraint, when alleviated, with the largest potential for increasing the relative population size of cowpea traders, with an estimated unconstrained potential population relative size of 55% (when all the sellers are aware of existence of the varieties) and a behavioral gap of 35% (the unmet demand for variety information). The constraint with the second largest potential is consumer demand (as measured by the seller’s perception of lack of appreciation of a variety by consumers), with estimated unconstrained potential relative population size and behavioral gap of 27% and 12%, respectively. In contrast, contrary to our expectations, we found relatively much lower potential for increasing the relative population size of cowpea traders by alleviating the product availability constraint (measured by the insufficiency of the quantity of cowpea available in supply sources during the year) and the storability constraint (measured by the seller’s perception of a variety’s lack of resistance to pests and insects attacks), with respective estimated unconstrained potential relative population sizes and behavioral gaps of 17% and 13% for the former and 17% and 7% for the latter.

Diagne, A. 2023. Cowpea market size and scope of product varieties in Senegal:  Estimation of actual and potential volumes of sales, clients served and revenues when sellers are unconstrained. Research Paper.

In this paper, we use the Local Average Treatment Effect (LATE) framework and data from a nationwide survey of 955 traders in 100 urban and rural markets in Senegal to estimate the actual and potential supply of cowpea grains in Senegal in terms of daily quantities sold, number of clients served and revenues. The estimated potentials are measures of the causal effects of alleviating the product variety information, availability, storability, and consumer demand constraints facing traders selling cowpea in markets across Senegal. We provide estimates of annual and seasonal averages for both the periods before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Our results show estimates of the actual average daily quantities sold, number of clients served, and revenues per trader and across varieties to be respectively 20 kg, 3 clients and 8,692 during the year 2020 -2021 (during COVID-19) and 22 kg, 4 clients and 10,251 CFA during the year 2019 -2020 (before COVID-19). The 2020 -2021 actual daily averages are estimated to increase potentially up to 61 kg, 10 clients, and 26,603 CFA, respectively, when cowpea traders are all made aware of the existence of the cowpea varieties. These potentials are estimated to increase further significantly when i) sufficient quantities of the cowpea varieties are made available during the cold season, right after harvest (by 55 kg, 3 clients, and 19,558 CFA, respectively), and during the hot season (by 59 kg, 8 clients and 25,876 CFA, respectively) and ii) the varieties are made resistant to insects and pests (50kg, 5 clients and 19,636 CFA). On the other hand,  making the varieties appreciated by consumers will only increase significantly further the potential number of clients (by 4 clients), while making the varieties available in sufficient quantities during the rainy season or reducing their storage losses to below 5% will not increase further the potential quantities sold, number of clients served and revenues. The estimated potentials for 2019 -2020 follow similar trends with about the same values.

Ndiaye, S., Diagne, A., and Theriault, V. 2023. Analysis of Demand for Cowpea in Senegal- An Application of the Engel Curve. Research Paper (in French).

This study examines the relationships between total household expenditure (income) and expenditure on specific food categories, such as cowpea. Specifically, it tests whether an increase in household expenditure would lead to an increase in the consumption of cowpeas and whether the share of total cowpea expenditure varies across household income levels, rural and urban areas, and low and high cowpea production zones. We utilize data from the 2013 National Food Security and Nutrition Survey led by the Executive Secretariat of the National Food Security Council in Senegal. The dataset includes information on approximately 5,300 households in rural areas and 2,900 households in urban areas during the lean season across all 14 regions of Senegal. Instrumental variable regressions are used to control for potential endogeneity in total household expenditures. The results indicate that cowpea consumption is as high in rural areas as in urban areas. The quadratic relationship between cowpea expenditure and total household expenditure is positive and significant, indicating that an increase in household expenditure leads to an increase in cowpea expenditure until a certain threshold is met. Above a certain threshold, the share of cowpea expenditure in total household expenditure begins to decline. No statistically significant difference is found between rural and urban areas. Policies that aim to increase poor household incomes would also contribute to improving food and nutrition security by enabling a greater consumption of nutritious cowpea products.

5.3 Master's Theses

Mali

Diallo, A. 2023. Analysis of the Spatial Distribution of Cowpea Fodder Markets in Bamako. Université des Sciences Sociales et de Gestion de Bamako. Master Thesis. (in-progress) (in French)

Cowpea fodder is a nutritious ruminant feed, especially during the dry season. Compared to rural areas, animals have little access to natural pastures in urban areas. Therefore, livestock owners depend more heavily on fodder markets to meet fodder needs in urban areas. In this study, we analyze the spatial distribution of the cowpea fodder markets in the urban area of Bamako by 1) mapping the main cowpea fodder market sites, 2) determining the sources of supply of cowpea fodder; and 3) identifying key constraints and opportunities related to the cowpea fodder marketing. The information is collected through a literature review and market visits. Our results suggest that cowpea fodder is a significant source of income for many small sellers in the Bamako area. Yet, seasonality in cowpea production and price remains a key constraint.

Dembele, A. 2023. Identification of cowpea process units and their contribution to the economic development of Bamako. Université des Sciences Sociales et de Gestion de Bamako. Master Thesis. (in-progress) (in French)

Cowpea is considered a staple food by many rural and urban households in Mali. Small agri-food processing units throughout Mali process cowpea grains into several products. This thesis focuses on the diagnosis of cowpea processing units and their contributions to the economic development of Bamako. Specifically, this thesis: (1)look at the profile of the main cowpea processing units, (2) identify their constraints and opportunities, (3) examine the contributions of cowpea processing units to local development, and (4) analyze the key factors affecting the performance of cowpea processing units. We utilize information collected from twenty agri-food processing units in Bamako (i.e., 13 cooperatives, 6 sole proprietorships, and 1 limited liability company). Our preliminary results show that 95% of cowpea processing unit owners are women, and they have, on average, 12 years of experience. Among them, 7 are involved in a secondary economic activity beyond the agri-food processing activity. The main cowpea-based processed products are flour for donuts, fari, accras, enriched porridge, as well as couscous, dèguè, and croquettes. As cowpea processing units, they face several constraints, including the high costs of raw materials, lack of access to modern equipment, limited access to financial services and training opportunities, as well as little knowledge of cowpea-processed products among the Malian population.

Diallo, D. 2021. Analyse des déterminants des dépenses de consommation du niébé au Mali. Université des Sciences Sociales et de Gestion de Bamako Master Thesis. (in French)

The main objective of this thesis is to analyze the determinants of consumption expenditure of cowpeas in Mali. We relied on existing literature, information from resource persons, and secondary databases from the National Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) and the Agricultural Market Observatory (OMA). A multiple linear regression model, estimated by the ordinary least squares (OLS) method, was used. Overall, the results show that the share of food expenditure devoted to cowpeas is determined by the sex of the household head, the size of the household, the price of the cowpea, the household's location (urban or rural), and the share of food expenditure of other cereals (rice, sorghum, maize, and millet). All those variables positively and significantly influence the share of food expenditure devoted to cowpeas in Malian households, except the price and share of food expenditure of other cereals, which negatively and significantly impact the share of food expenditure allocated to cowpeas. The results also show that the share of this expenditure is different according to the household's location (urban or rural). We found that this share is higher in rural areas than urban areas. Finally, the results of this study reveal the main pattern of cowpea consumption in Mali: consumption in households during family meals, consumption in social and cultural ceremonies, and consumption for catering. Ultimately, decision-makers should implement a policy of awareness and promotion so that Malian consumers know the importance of cowpea.

Traore, A. K. 2020. Analyse spatiale du marché de niébé au Mali. Université des Sciences Sociales et de Gestion de Bamako Master Thesis. (in French) 

Cowpea is a very popular legume, and all parts (leaves, green pods, dry seeds, and haulms) are eaten or marketed. It plays an important role in the livelihood of many rural families regarding income and food. This study focuses on the spatial analysis of the cowpea market in Mali. The objective is to analyze the spatial distribution of cowpea supply and demand in Mali in order to map production basins, processing sites, consumption areas, the categorization of markets, and the distribution circuits. This study is based on statistical data from CPS / SDR, OMA, INSTAT, personal socio-economic data, and those of the NIEBE project. The strategy applied is manual classification in ARC GIS to map the spatial distribution of production basins. The geometric classification was used to map the different consumption basins. The categorization and identification of the core density of markets is done from the types of markets in Kernel Density. The cowpea marketing circuit is based on the analysis of data from the maintenance guide, data from the NIEBE project, and the results of the field survey. The results made it possible to distinguish three production and processing areas, two types of consumption environments, and three market categories. But the large production basins are not the large processing sites nor the large zones where the share of expenditure allocated to the consumption of cowpeas is high. Producer and consumer prices (purchase and resale) are affordable during harvest. The average difference between the two prices decreases from the harvest period to the rainy season. The marketing circuit shows the interdependence between the different markets. Producer markets ensure the country's supply during the harvest and intermediate periods. During winter, it is supplied by the wholesale and international markets.

Senegal 

Sarr, A.F. 2023. Cowpea Grain Supply in Local Markets of Senegal. Université Iba Der Thiam de Thiès. Master Thesis. (In French)

Cowpea is the second most cultivated legume in Senegal after groundnut. Research has focused more on solving the problems related to its production. Yet, a considerable share of the harvest, formerly destined for self-consumption, is now sold in local markets. The scale and scope of cowpea products traded in these markets are little known. This study fills this gap by analyzing the supply of cowpea grains and identifying its determinants. Utilizing a dataset of three hundred cowpea grain sellers located in one hundred local markets distributed in the fourteen regions of Senegal, we run regressions to estimate the determinants of cowpea supply. Results indicate that the most traded cowpea varieties in order of importance in terms of sales are red, white, black, Fouta, and Goana. The first two varieties are most sold because of their ease of processing, consumer appreciation, and high availability. Selling prices vary according to variety and season. On average, the Fouta variety is more expensive in all seasons, followed by the red, white, and black cowpea varieties, and then, Goana. The determinants that positively influence the supply of red, white, and black cowpea varieties are the market's location in a region of high cowpea production, its periodicity, and the availability of the variety during the cold season. Determinants that negatively influence the supply are the seller's age and the variety's availability during the rainy season. Low grain availability from February to September and lack of storage are the main constraints to cowpea marketing.

Diallo, D. 2023. A Spatial Analysis of Local Cowpea Markets in Senegal. Université Iba Der Thiam de Thiès. Master Thesis. (In French)

In Senegal, policies that aim to facilitate the integration of local agricultural commodities into markets have predominantly focused on cereals. Little attention has been paid to marketing other crops, such as cowpeas. The objectives of this study are twofold. First, to analyze the effects of spatial proximity on the marketing of cowpea grains and cowpea-based products. Second, to evaluate cowpea's spatial integration and price transmission on a nationally representative sample of markets. Results indicate that men, women, and even children play a significant role in marketing cowpea grains and cowpea-based products, especially for the less educated ones. Cowpea traders usually depend on their own funds to finance their activities. The marketing of cowpea is highly influenced by seasonality. Cowpea is more available during the cold season and less during the hot and rainy seasons, creating supply gaps in markets. Also, markets located near each other have similar characteristics. However, their level of influence on each other is low. Findings also indicate that the level of market integration is low and that the price transmission process is imperfect in the short run.

Ndiaye, M. Analyse de la compétitivité de l’utilisation de produits à base de niébé dans les cantines scolaires comparés à l’utilisation des produits importés. Université Assane Seck de Ziguinchor. Master Thesis. (In French). 

It is rare for school feeding programs to offer menus made with locally sourced ingredients, such as cowpea. This study aims to analyze the competitiveness of cowpea products in school canteen menus compared to imported products. The Policy Analysis Matrix (PAM) methodology is used to compute indicators of competitiveness (i.e., financial, and economic returns, domestic resource costs, nominal and effective protection coefficients). Data in input usage and costs, product prices, transportation, subsidies, and taxes at each segment of the cowpea value chains are needed to construct the PAM. Results will provide key insights into the types of investments and policies needed to increase cowpea's competitiveness.

5.4 Reports 

Mali

Sissoko, M. 2023. Atelier de partage des résultats de recherche au Mali. Workshop Report. May.

Sissoko, M., and Keita, N. 2021. Collecte de données au niveau de certains marches urbains, semi-urbains et ruraux. Field Report. March.

Sissoko, M., Keita, N., Kone, M., and Guindo, A. 2021. Rapport de mission dans le cadre du test des outils du projet niébé. Field Report. January.

Senegal 

Diagne, A. 2023. Atelier de partage des résultats de recherche au Sénégal. Workshop Report. May.

Diagne, A. 2023. Politique d’intégration des produits à base de niébé dans les menus des cantines scolaires du Sénégal. Conceptual Notes. April. 

Diagne, A., and Ndiaye, S. 2023. Politique d’intégration des produits à base de niébé dans les menus des cantines scolaires du Sénégal. Field Report. January.

Diagne, A., and Theriault, V. 2022. Compréhension de l’étendue et de la portée de la consommation des produits et sous-produits à base de niébé en milieu urbain et rural au Sénégal. Research Protocol. September.

Diagne, A,m Ndiaye, M., Ndoye, C.T., Sarr, A.F., and Diallo, D. 2021. Organization, De-identification, and Documentation of the Cowpea Market Survey Database. Report. October.

Diagne, A., Ndiaye, M., Ndoye, C.T., Sarr, A.F., and Diallo, D. 2021. Rapport sur la conduite et le suivi des enquêtes sur la commercialisation du niébé dans les marchés du Sénégal. Field Report. August.

Ndiaye, M. 2021. Rapport enquêtes marchés sur la filière niébé. Field Report. June.

Diagne, A., Sarr, A.F., and Diallo, D. 2021. Rapport sur la mission de prospection de quelques marchés dans les régions de Thiés, Dakar, Diourbel et Louga. Field Report. April.

Diagne, A., Ndiaye, M. Ndoye, C. T., Sarr, A. F., and Diallo, D. 2021.  Rapport sur les ateliers de formation des enquêteurs sur le questionnaire relatif à la commercialisation du niébé dans les marchés du Sénégal. Field Report. April.

Diagne, A., Smale, M., Theriault, V., and Wade, I. 2020. Quantifying the scale and scope of nutritious cowpea products in local markets of West Africa. Research Protocol.

5.5 Newsletters 

Allen, A. In the Field- Spotlight on Gender Responsive Legume Systems Research, FtF Innovation Lab for Legume Systems Research. June 30, 2022.

Allen. A. and THERIAULT V. Cowpeas lost and found- Women traders play a critical role. FtF Innovation Lab for Legume System Research. November 30, 2020.

Mali

Theriault, V. 2021. Beyond Grain: The Potential of Cowpea in Local Markets of Mali. FtF Innovation Lab for Legume System Research. December 5, 2021.

Senegal 

FtF LSR. 2023. Senegalese Researcher Visits Legume Lab Office. January Newsletter. https://www.canr.msu.edu/legumelab/uploads/newsletters/jan_23_newsletter.pdf

Hill, M. 2023. Award Winning Senegalese Alum Back to MSU After More Than a Quarter of a Century. MSU CANR website. February 7.

5.6 Presentations 

Theriault,V. 2023. Quantifying the Scale and Scope of Nutritious Cowpea Products in Local Markets of West Africa. FtF Legume Systems Innovation Lab Annual Convening. Zambia. February.

Theriault, V. 2022. Community of Practice on Global Development Gender Workshop. Panelist. Michigan State University. November.

Theriault,V. 2022. Quantifying the Scale and Scope of Nutritious Cowpea Products in Local Markets of West Africa. FtF Legume Systems Innovation Lab Annual Convening. Vitual. February.

Theriault,V. 2021. Quantifying the Scale and Scope of Nutritious Cowpea Products in Local Markets of West Africa. FtF Legume Systems Innovation Lab Annual Convening. Virtual. February.

Mali

Sissoko, M. and Theriault, V. 2023. Atelier de partage des résultats - Atelier de partage des résultats. Dissemination workshop. Mali. May.

Sissoko, M. 2023.  Analysis of the Structure, Conduct, and Performance of the Cowpea Market in Mali. FtF Legume Systems Innovation Lab Annual Convening. Zambia. February.

Theriault, V.  2022. Le genre dans l’agriculture: Le cas du niébé. Atelier sur la gestion des pertes post récoltes en République Centrafricaine. June. 

Carlson, H. 2022. Food Demand in Times of Crisis: Mali in the 21ST Century. Sustainability and Development Conference, Virtual. January.

Senegal 

Carlson, H. 2023. What factors affect the decision to become a food processor and to specialize in cowpea processing? Evidence from Senegal. Agricultural and Applied Economics association, Annual Meeting. Washington D.C. July. 

Diagne, A. 2023. Taille potentielle du marché du niébé au Sénégal lorsque les vendeurs ne sont pas soumis à des contraintes. Dissemination Workshop. Senegal. May. 

Ndiaye, M. 2023. Résultats de la mission de concertation sur la politique d’intégration de produits à base de niébé dans les menus des cantines scolaires du Senegal. Dissemination Workshop. Senegal. May. 

Ndiaye, M. 2023. Présentation de la note conceptuelle sur la politique d’intégration de produits à base de niébé dans les menus des cantines scolaires du Senegal. Dissemination Workshop. Senegal. May. 

Sarr. A.F. 2023. Étude de l’offre en grains de niébé et de ses déterminants dans les marches locaux au Sénégal. Poster. Dissemination Workshop. Senegal. May. 

Djbrill, D. 2023. Analyse spatio-temporelle des marchés dans la commercialisation du niébé au Sénégal. Dissemination Workshop. Senegal. May.

Carlson, H. 2023. Determinants of participation in processed cowpea markets: Evidence from Senegal. FtF Legume Systems Innovation Lab Annual Convening. Zambia. February.

Diagne, A. 2023. Estimation of potential increases of market supplies of cowpea-based products through improved product availability, storage, information, and consumer demand: The case of Senegal. FtF Legume Systems Innovation Lab Annual Convening. Zambia. February.

Diagne, A. 2023. Estimation of potential population cowpea market sizes when sellers are unconstrained by product variety information, availability, storability, and consumer demand: The case of Senegal. Michigan State University. AFRE Departmental Seminar. January 20.

Diagne, A.  and Ndiaye, M. 2023. Challenges and opportunities for the establishment of actor-actor and actor-school canteen partnerships in Senegal. January. 

Carlson, H. 2023. What factors affect the decision to become a food processor and to specialize in cowpea processing? Evidence from Senegal. Michigan State University, AFRE Department, Brown Bag Seminar. January 31.

5.7 Awards   

Sissoko, M. 2023. Early Career Grain Legume Scientist Award. FtF LRS-IL.

Carlson, H. 2023. Glenn & Sandy Johnson Dissertation Enhancement Fellowship

5.8 Generation of New Datasets 

Mali

Market survey ~400 cowpea traders across 26 markets in 5 regions 

Consumption survey- ~ 540 urban and rural households across 3 regions and two seasons 

Senegal

Market survey ~1000 cowpea and non-cowpea traders across 100 markets in all regions

Consumption survey- ~ 600 urban and rural households across all 14 regions 

5.9 Short-term Training 

Human Research Ethics and Safe Return to Work under COVID-19 (>40 participants)

Use of smartphones and Mlax program for the administration of survey questionnaires (>40 participants)

Value chain analysis (>10 participants)

Kaleidoscope model (>10 participants)

ÊSTIMATE (Early Summer Tutorial in Modern Applied Tools of Econometrics) (3 participants)

Formulate recommendations based on agronomic data- parts I and II (>50 participants)

5.10 New Local and Regional collaborations 

Through this project, new collaborations among in-country and regional institutions were born. It was a first-time collaboration between MSU and the Malian and Senegalese universities. It was also the first time that Malian and Senegalese universities collaborated with their respective national market information systems. It was a very positive experience for all of us. We learned from each other’s areas of expertise.  

Highlights of Addressing Cross Cutting Themes  

In all our data collection efforts, gender and youth were used as a stratification variable (where possible and of research interest) or as a group variable in data analysis to derive insights and policy recommendations that would benefit more women and youth. For the cowpea consumption survey, the person responsible for preparing the household's meals was interviewed about household food consumption habits. In most cases, a woman was interviewed. For the market assessment, the collected data was sex-disaggregated, allowing us to examine men's and women's participation as traders and processors in the open-air markets of Mali and Senegal. In addition to the two peer-reviewed journal articles, eight research papers, utilizing the market assessment dataset, have a gender focus. Key findings of these journal articles and research papers were also presented to academic and non-academic audiences (see list of presentations in the accomplishment section). Together, our results highlight the prominent role of women in the processing and trading segments of the cowpea value chains and the importance of cowpea sales as a source of income for women. Women are more likely to be cowpea grain retailers (rather than wholesalers) and sell food prepared from cowpea in local markets. Yet, women continue to face obstacles in accessing resources and services, such as training and credit, preventing the expansion of their entrepreneurial activities.

Enhancing nutrition outcomes was also at the heart of this project focused on understanding the scope and scale of nutritious cowpea products. Cowpea grains and leaves can be consumed and/or sold in the ‘hungry season’, and cowpea products are cheap sources of protein with the potential to address some nutrient deficiencies, particularly in young children and other nutritionally-vulnerable groups. Our unique food household consumption dataset, which singles out cowpea instead of lumping them into a legume food group, has enabled us to empirically discern the importance of cowpea on dietary habits. In Mali, 3-4% of household food budget is allocated to cowpea. Cowpea remains mostly purchased as grain, although cowpea-based products, such as accra, were also purchased. Additional funding was also received to engage in activities to better integrate the use of cowpea-based products into school canteen menus. 

As a drought-tolerant crop, cowpea is well suited to play an increasingly crucial role in addressing climate change and resilience issues. More market opportunities for cowpea through value-added products would help contribute to livelihood resilience for farmers relying on cowpea as a source of income.

HICD was addressed through different approaches. First, we established new institutional contracts with our local partners, when possible. For instance, the unit CFRFAT at the Université Iba Der Thiam de Thiès had successfully applied for a DUNS number, which put them in a better position to contract with U.S. institutions. Second, we built the capacity of researchers and students through a series of short-term training (see the accomplishment section for more details). Third, we created opportunities for research partnerships and institutional linkages within and across countries.

Utilization of Research Outputs and Handoff/Scaling of the Outputs

Our team investment in research and capacity strengthening resulted in a series of outputs in the form of evidence-based research findings and skilled human resources (see accomplishment section above). The project’s research outputs and capacity development led to two outcomes: 1) dissemination of and access to new knowledge;  and 2) improved human and institutional capacity. Specifically,

1. 1. In each study country, the research generated a new dataset that inventories the product, trader, and market characteristics in representative open-air markets; 
   2. Generated insights from the analysis of consumer demand for cowpea products, constraints, and opportunities, with a particular focus on emerging, value-added products. 
   3. Trained 8 graduate students and produced 7 (two more than expected) master’s student theses and two PhD dissertation essays. 
   4. Generated several research outputs. 
   5. Prepared outreach materials to share with key stakeholders at workshops and conferences.
   6. Engaged with private and public actors in the cowpea value chain through informal meetings and closing policy workshops.

In addition to the academic, research, and market information institutions involved in the activities, other direct beneficiaries include private and public, informal, and formal actors in the cowpea market value chains of the two study countries. If market-based incentives for nutritious products are strengthened, beneficiaries include not only the producers and traders of the goods but also the nutritionally vulnerable members of society who will consume them. Thus, women's enterprises and civil society stand to benefit alongside the publicly funded institutions of Senegal and Mali. The information generated and shared from this research can be used to design development programs/policies to scale up the benefits of increasing the production and availability of cowpea-based nutritious products in the market.

The utilization of research outputs can be seen through the recommendations made by key cowpea stakeholders during the closing workshops in both countries (see list below). These workshops contributed to the dissemination of key findings. They also provided networking opportunities for participants to share their ideas and recommendations on the opportunities and challenges to better integrate cowpea and cowpea products into local and regional market channels in Mali and Senegal and into the school canteen menus in Senegal.

Mali: 

• Promote high-yielding cowpea varieties. 
• Conduct and disseminate research on methods to control cowpea pests. 
• Support the creation of a cowpea inter-professional association. 
• Improve the storage and packaging capacities of cowpea stakeholders. 
• Provide short-term training on agro-processing techniques.
• Strengthen the capacity of processors to comply with quality and safety standards.
• Facilitate access to processing equipment and infrastructure.
• Promote sustainable packaging initiatives at the national level. 
• Improve access to financial services for processors.
• Promote processed cowpea products and encourage the consumption of cowpea-based products in school feeding menus. 
• Inventory and promote traditional cowpea recipes.
• Launch a national “cowpea day”.

Senegal: 

• Facilitate the supply of cowpea grains and products to school canteens by contracting with cowpea traders.
• Increase cowpea production in the regions by providing quality seeds to targeted farmers.
• Use the CNDN recipe guide to improve the nutritional quality of meals offered to school children.
• Connect processors and school canteen managers.
• Equip women cowpea processors with materials to lighten their workload and increase their productivity.
• Develop school-community fields.
• Stimulate the development of a cowpea value chain capable of meeting the increasing demand for processed cowpea products.  
• Increase access to cowpea flour and dehulled cowpea grains by cowpea processors and sellers. 

Further Challenges and Opportunities

8.1 Challenges

The unexpected COVID-19 pandemic slowed the contracting process and other planned activities. To ensure the health of the community, MSU staff and faculty worked remotely. Likewise, in an effort to flatten the curve, the Universite des Sciences Sociales et de Gestion de Bamako (USSGB) and Université Iba Der Thiam de Thiès temporarily closed. The Université Iba Der Thiam de Thiès experienced significant delays in implementing the activities due to administrative and personnel issues. Due to the pandemic, travels were suspended, and stakeholder inception workshops in both countries were canceled. Informal and virtual meetings to discuss the project rather than crowded indoor meetings were preferred. In the first few months of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Senegalese and Malian governments strongly encouraged people to stay home, and access to markets was limited. Some markets were even closed for some time in Senegal. 

With the benefit of hindsight, the local PIs were able to draw interesting lessons from conducting the market assessment activity under COVID.

Mali: We did not observe any market closure. In markets, especially in rural ones, we had to communicate and explain the objectives of the surveys in great detail. Sanitary measures were almost non-existent in these markets (traders and consumers did not wear masks nor practice physical distancing). When our teams (wearing masks) entered these markets, they were immediately seen as "foreigners ". We had to redouble our efforts to communicate and establish trust. It is more challenging to speak, be understood, and trust when wearing a mask.

Senegal: There was a significant reduction in trading activities for all the actors in the markets for most of 2020 and 2021, including after the lifting of the lockdown measures. This made the two-year period very atypical in informing us on the scale, intensity, turnover, and profitability of cowpea trading. To account for the atypical nature of the 2020- 2021 period for cowpea marketing, we adapted our questionnaires to collect data on i) the timing of market closure and reopening and ii) through recall, pre-covid-19 data for many relevant variables (i.e., volume traded, number of clients per days, revenues). 

Due to the ongoing political instability in Mali, engagement with the government has been limited. The high level of insecurity in the country also limited our field activities. Both data collections took place in the more secure regions of Mali. Having nationally representative data through the administration of the surveys in all regions was not an option due to security reasons.

8.2 Opportunities

In addition to the opportunities embedded in the set of recommendations made by key cowpea stakeholders, we further discuss two additional ones below.  

Our project contributed to filling the information gap on the scale and scope of nutritious cowpea products in local markets in Mali and Senegal. Our findings inform us on the trends in cowpea processing and marketing in local markets. A small number of cowpea fodder sellers were identified, especially in rural areas. For a better understanding of the value chain of cowpea products, there is a need to further investigate cowpea fodder markets. The growing demand for livestock and dairy products in urban markets is hampered by the low quantity and poor quality of fodder. The lack of feed for livestock is one of the main constraints to increasing meat and milk production, which impacts the incomes and livelihoods of many poor livestock keepers. It is recognized that cowpea fodder can provide rich nutrition for small ruminants and other animals. Opportunities exist to address the scarcity of cowpea fodder and improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the cowpea fodder value chain. Another opportunity emerging from our work on better integrating cowpea-based products into school canteen menus is the need to document the impact of sourcing meal ingredients, here cowpea products, locally on local farmer productivity and community sustainability.